Metallic Biomaterials for Dental Implants and Implant-Supported Prosthetic Components: A Narrative Review

mohamed hayder; DHUHA SABAH Hasan; Rihab  Jabbar; Elisabeta Mirela Cojocaru; Vasile Danut Cojocaru

doi:10.69923/ewscea38

Authors

mohamed hayder Department of Medical Physics, College of Science, Al-Karkh University Author
DHUHA SABAH Hasan National Center of Hematology, Mustansiriyah University, Baghdad, Iraq. Author
Rihab Jabbar Author
Elisabeta Mirela Cojocaru Author
Vasile Danut Cojocaru Author

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.69923/ewscea38

Keywords:

biomaterials, dental

Abstract

The use of metallic biomaterials is still central to dental implantology and implant-supported prosthetic rehabilitation due to their mechanical stability, corrosion resistance and biological compatibility with the long-term utility in the oral environment. This narrative review critically evaluates the metallic material in dental implant fixtures, abutments and implant-supported prosthetic components with references to commercially pure titanium, titanium alloys, cobalt-chromium alloys, stainless steels, nickel-titanium alloys and noble and high-noble dental alloys. The review explores the key specifications that are relevant in the selection of materials such as biocompatibility, elastic modulus, strength, fatigue resistance, wear and corrosion behavior, osseointegration potential and clinical performance. The role of alloy composition, surface chemistry, implant geometry and strategies of surface modification in bone-implant interaction and long-term stability are given special consideration. Other issues such as stress shielding, release of metal ions, tribocorrosion, implant abutment interface degradation, allergic reactions, infection related complications, and variability in factors depending on the patients are also identified in the review. Moreover, improved technologies in manufacturing, particularly CAD/CAM and additive manufacturing are also mentioned as the potential solutions to make patient-specific implantation and porous structures with enhanced biomechanical compatibility. In general, the development of the successful clinical implementation of metallic biomaterials in dentistry needs a combination of materials science and surface engineering, implant design, and biological response. The next generation ought to be tailored metallic systems with refined mechanical behavior, controlled surface reactivity, enhanced corrosion resistance, and standardized long-term biological/clinical validation

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

[1] T. E. Donovan and W. W. Chee, “Conservative Indirect Restorations for Posterior Teeth: Cast Versus Bonded Ceramic,” Dental Clinics of North America, vol. 37, no. 3, pp. 433–443, 1993. doi: 10.1016/S0011-8532(22)00263-4.

[2] F. Asadian, Z. Shahidi, and Z. Moradi, “Evaluation of Wear Properties of Four Bulk-Fill Composites: Attrition, Erosion, and Abrasion,” BioMed Research International, vol. 2021, Art. no. 8649616, 2021. doi: 10.1155/2021/8649616.

[3] R. Palmer, “Introduction to Dental Implants,” British Dental Journal, vol. 187, no. 3, pp. 127–132, 1999. doi: 10.1038/sj.bdj.4800222.

[4] A. Kashi and S. Saha, “Mechanisms of Failure of Medical Implants During Long-Term Use,” in Biointegration of Medical Implant Materials: Science and Design, pp. 326–348, 2010. doi: 10.1533/9781845699802.3.326.

[5] U.S. Food and Drug Administration, “Implants and Prosthetics,” U.S. Food and Drug Administration,2019.

[6] D. Shekhawat, A. Singh, A. Bhardwaj, and A. Patnaik, “A Short Review on Polymer, Metal and Ceramic Based Implant Materials,” IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, vol. 1017, no. 1, Art. no. 012038, 2021. doi: 10.1088/1757-899X/1017/1/012038.

[7] R. Lucien, H. Luethy, P. Eschler, A. Blatter, and F. Schmidli, “Screening Test for Metal Identification in Prosthetic Dentistry,” WebmedCentral Dentistry, vol. 1, no. 9, Art. no. WMC00835, 2010.

[8] A. Kumar, B. Chirom, M. Ahmad, H. Naim, M. N. Kumar, M. Mundathaje, and S. Saldanha, “Metals in Prosthodontics: A Review,” European Chemical Bulletin, vol. 12, no. 8, pp. 4400–4450, 2023.

[9] M. Roach, “Base metal alloys used for dental restorations and implants,” Dental Clinics of North America, vol. 51, no. 3, pp. 603–627, 2007. doi: 10.1016/j.cden.2007.04.001.

[10] K. J. Anusavice, C. Shen, and H. R. Rawls, Phillips’ Science of Dental Materials, 11th ed. St. Louis, MO, USA: Elsevier, 2003

[11] H. F. Morris, M. Manz, W. Stoffer, and D. Weir, “Casting Alloys: The Materials and ‘The Clinical Effects’,” Advances in Dental Research, vol. 6, pp. 28–31, 1992. doi: 10.1177/08959374920060011101.

[12] J. C. Wataha and R. L. Messer, “Casting Alloys,” Dental Clinics of North America, vol. 48, no. 2, pp. 499–512, 2004. doi: 10.1016/j.cden.2003.12.010.

[13] A. Baldini, G. Bruzzesi, D. Zaffe, M. Giacopini, A. Strozzi, and A. De Pol, “Biomechanical Aspects in Dental Replacements,” WIT Transactions on State of the Art in Science and Engineering, vol. 35, pp. 197–243, 2008. doi: 10.2495/978-1-84564-096-5/09.

[14] F. Akaltan and D. Kaynak, “An evaluation of the effects of two distal extension removable partial denture designs on tooth stabilization and periodontal health,” Journal of Oral Rehabilitation, vol. 32, no. 11, pp. 823–829, 2005. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2842.2005.01511.x.

[15] A. Gupta, M. Dhanraj, and G. Sivagami, “Status of Surface Treatment in Endosseous Implant: A Literary Overview,” Indian Journal of Dental Research, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 433–438, 2010. doi: 10.4103/0970-9290.70805.

[16] V. Moraschini, L. A. da C. Poubel, V. F. Ferreira, and E. dos S. P. Barboza, “Evaluation of Survival and Success Rates of Dental Implants Reported in Longitudinal Studies with a Follow-up Period of at Least 10 Years: A Systematic Review,” International Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, vol. 44, no. 3, pp. 377–388, 2015. doi: 10.1016/j.ijom.2014.10.023.

[17] J. Zupnik, S.-W. Kim, D. Ravens, N. Karimbux, and K. Guze, “Factors Associated With Dental Implant Survival: A 4-Year Retrospective Analysis,” Journal of Periodontology, vol. 82, no. 10, pp. 1390–1395, 2011. doi: 10.1902/jop.2011.100685.

[18] T. Albrektsson, P.-I. Brånemark, H. A. Hansson, and J. Lindström, “Osseointegrated Titanium Implants: Requirements for Ensuring a Long-Lasting, Direct Bone-to-Implant Anchorage in Man,” Acta Orthopaedica Scandinavica, 1981. 52, pp. 155–170, 1981. doi: 10.3109/17453678108991776.

[19] L. P. Garetto, J. Chen, J. A. Parr, and W. E. Roberts, “Remodeling Dynamics of Bone Supporting Rigidly Fixed Titanium Implants: A Histomorphometric Comparison in Four Species Including Humans,” Implant Dentistry, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 235–243, 1995. doi: 10.1097/00008505-199500440-00002.

[20] E. Abt, “Growing Body of Evidence on Survival Rates of Implant-Supported Fixed Prostheses,” Evidence-Based Dentistry, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 51–52, 2008. doi: 10.1038/sj.ebd.6400584.

[21] H. J. Han, S. Kim, and D. H. Han, “Multifactorial Evaluation of Implant Failure: A 19-Year Retrospective Study,” The International Journal of Oral & Maxillofacial Implants, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 303–310, 2014. doi: 10.11607/jomi.2869.

[22] A. Warreth, S. Boggs, N. Ibieyou, R. El-Helali, and S. Hwang, “Peri-Implant Diseases: An Overview,” Dental Update, vol. 42, no. 2, pp. 166–184, 2015. doi: 10.12968/denu.2015.42.2.166.

[23] E. Marin, F. Boschetto, and G. Pezzotti, “Biomaterials and Biocompatibility: An Historical Overview,” Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part A, vol. 108, no. 8, pp. 1617–1633, 2020. doi: 10.1002/jbm.a.36930.

[24] A. Alkhadashi, M. Ç. Güven, F. Erol, and G. Yıldırım, “The Effect of Different Combinations of Surface Treatments and Bonding Agents on the Shear Bond Strength Between Titanium Alloy and Lithium Disilicate Glass-Ceramic,” International Journal of Periodontics & Restorative Dentistry, vol. 40, no. 2, pp. 271–276, 2020. doi: 10.11607/prd.3893.

[25] B. I. Ardlin, J. E. Dahl, and J. E. Tibballs, “Static Immersion and Irritation Tests of Dental Metal-Ceramic Alloys,” European Journal of Oral Sciences, vol. 113, no. 1, pp. 83–89, 2005. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0722.2005.00187.x.

[26] T. B. Ozcelik, B. Yilmaz, I. Ozcan, and C. Kircelli, “Colorimetric Analysis of Opaque Porcelain Fired to Different Base Metal Alloys Used in Metal-Ceramic Restorations,” The Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry, vol. 99, no. 3, pp. 193–202, 2008. doi: 10.1016/S0022-3913(08)60043-8.

[27] F. Zarone, S. Russo, and R. Sorrentino, “From Porcelain-Fused-to-Metal to Zirconia: Clinical and Experimental Considerations,” Dental Materials, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 83–96, 2011. doi: 10.1016/j.dental.2010.10.024.

[28] B. Yilmaz, T. B. Ozcelik, W. M. Johnston, S. Kurtulmus-Yilmaz, and A. M. Company, “Effect of Alloy Recasting on the Color of Opaque Porcelain Applied on Different Dental Alloy Systems,” The Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry, vol. 108, no. 6, pp. 362–369, 2012. doi: 10.1016/S0022-3913(12)60193-0.

[29] T. Albrektsson, L. Canullo, D. Cochran, and H. De Bruyn, “‘Peri-Implantitis’: A Complication of a Foreign Body or a Man-Made ‘Disease’. Facts and Fiction,” Clinical Implant Dentistry and Related Research, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 840–849, 2016. doi: 10.1111/cid.12427.

[30] S. Attarilar, M. Ebrahimi, F. Djavanroodi, Y. Fu, L. Wang, and J. Yang, “3D printing technologies in metallic implants: A thematic review on the techniques and procedures,” Int. J. Bioprint., vol. 7, no. 1, Art. no. 306, Dec. 2020, doi: 10.18063/ijb.v7i1.306.

[31] H. J. Conrad, W. J. Seong, and I. J. Pesun, “Current Ceramic Materials and Systems with Clinical Recommendations: A Systematic Review,” The Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry, vol. 98, no. 5, pp. 389–404, 2007. doi: 10.1016/S0022-3913(07)60124-3.

[32] S. Bauer, P. Schmuki, K. von der Mark, and J. Park, “Engineering biocompatible implant surfaces: Part I: Materials and surfaces,” Progress in Materials Science, vol. 58, no. 3, pp. 261–326, 2013. doi: 10.1016/j.pmatsci.2012.09.001.

[33] E. Bajraktarova-Valjakova, V. Korunoska-Stevkovska, B. Kapusevska, N. Gigovski, C. Bajraktarova-Misevska, and A. Grozdanov, “Contemporary Dental Ceramic Materials, A Review: Chemical Composition, Physical and Mechanical Properties, Indications for Use,” Open Access Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences, vol. 6, no. 9, pp. 1742–1755, 2018. doi: 10.3889/oamjms.2018.378.

[34] V. A. R. Barão, R. A. Ramachandran, A. O. Matos, R. V. Badhe, C. R. Grandini, C. Sukotjo, D. Ozevin, and M. Mathew, “Prediction of Tribocorrosion Processes in Titanium-Based Dental Implants Using Acoustic Emission Technique: Initial Outcome,” Materials Science and Engineering: C, vol. 123, Art. no. 112000, 2021. doi: 10.1016/j.msec.2021.112000.

[35] D. F. Williams, “On the Mechanisms of Biocompatibility,” Biomaterials, vol. 29, no. 20, pp. 2941–2953, 2008. doi: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2008.04.023.

[36] H. Hermawan, D. Ramdan, and J. R. P. Djuansjah, “Metals for Biomedical Applications,” in Biomedical Engineering – From Theory to Applications, R. Fazel-Rezai, Ed. London, UK: IntechOpen, 2011. doi: 10.5772/19033.

[37] Z. Sheikh, S. Najeeb, Z. Khurshid, V. Verma, H. Rashid, and M. Glogauer, “Biodegradable Materials for Bone Repair and Tissue Engineering Applications,” Materials, vol. 8, no. 9, pp. 5744–5794, 2015. doi: 10.3390/ma8095273.

[38] K. S. Ødegaard, J. Torgersen, and C. W. Elverum, “Structural and biomedical properties of common additively manufactured biomaterials: A concise review,” Metals, vol. 10, no. 12, Art. no. 1677, 2020. doi: 10.3390/met10121677.

[39] E. Marin, “Forged to Heal: The Role of Metallic Cellular Solids in Bone Tissue Engineering,” Materials Today Bio, vol. 23, Art. no. 100777, 2023. doi: 10.1016/j.mtbio.2023.100777

[40] K. Ronoh, F. Mwema, S. Dabees, and D. Sobola, “Advances in Sustainable Grinding of Different Types of The Titanium Biomaterials for Medical Applications: A Review,” Biomedical Engineering Advances, vol. 4, Art. no. 100047, 2022.

[41] A. Al Madhoun, K. Meshal, N. Carrió, et al., “Randomized clinical trial: Bone bioactive liquid improves implant stability and osseointegration,” J. Funct. Biomater., vol. 15, no. 10, Art. no. 293, Oct. 2024, doi: 10.3390/jfb15100293.

[42] M. Geetha, A. K. Singh, R. Asokamani, and A. K. Gogia, “Ti Based Biomaterials, The Ultimate Choice for orthopedic Implants – A Review,” Progress in Materials Science, vol. 54, no. 3, pp. 397–425, 2009. doi: 10.1016/j.pmatsci.2008.06.004.

[43] K. Prasad, O. Bazaka, M. Chua, M. Rochford, L. Fedrick, J. Spoor, R. Symes, M. Tieppo, C. Collins, A. Cao, D. Markwell, K. Ostrikov, and K. Bazaka, “Metallic Biomaterials: Current Challenges and Opportunities,” Materials, vol. 10, no. 8, Art. no. 884, 2017. doi: 10.3390/ma10080884.

[44] B. Huzum, B. Puha, R. M. Necoara, S. Gheorghevici, G. Puha, A. Filip, P. D. Sirbu, and O. Alexa, “Biocompatibility Assessment of Biomaterials Used in Orthopedic Devices: An Overview (Review),” Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine, vol. 22, no. 5, Art. no. 1315, 2021. doi: 10.3892/etm.2021.1075

[45] W. H. De Jong, J. W. Carraway, and R. E. Geertsma, “In Vivo and in Vitro Testing for the Biological Safety Evaluation of Biomaterials and Medical Devices,” in Biocompatibility and Performance of Medical Devices, pp. 120-158, 2020.

[46] A. Fattah-Alhosseini, R. Chaharmahali, K. Babaei, M. Nouri, M. K. Keshavarz, and M. Kaseem, “A Review of Effective Strides in Amelioration of the Biocompatibility of PEO Coatings on Mg Alloys,” Journal of Magnesium and Alloys, vol. 10, no. 9, pp. 2354–2383, 2022. doi: 10.1016/j.jma.2022.09.002.

[47] A. Bandyopadhyay, I. Mitra, S. B. Goodman, M. Kumar, and S. Bose, “Improving Biocompatibility for Next Generation of Metallic Implants,” Progress in Materials Science, vol. 133, Art. no. 101053, 2023. doi: 10.1016/j.pmatsci.2022.101053.

[48] M. Mateu-Sanz, C. V. Fuenteslópez, J. Uribe-Gomez, H. J. Haugen, A. Pandit, M.-P. Ginebra, O. Hakimi, M. Krallinger, and A. Samara, “Redefining Biomaterial Biocompatibility: Challenges for Artificial Intelligence and Text Mining,” Trends in Biotechnology, vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 402–417, 2024. doi: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2023.09.015.

[49] M. Jurak, A. E. Wiącek, A. Ładniak, K. Przykaza, and K. Szafran, “What Affects the Biocompatibility of Polymers?,” Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, vol. 294, Art. no. 102451, 2021. doi: 10.1016/j.cis.2021.102451.

[50] Biomechanics: Fundamentals, Devices and Applications, pp. 341–359, 2022. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-824481-4.00038-X.

[51] M. Jurczyk, Bionanomaterials for Dental Applications, 1st ed. UK: Taylor & Francis Group, 2012. doi: 10.1201/b1325

[52] S. Noumbissi, A. Scarano, and S. Gupta, “A Literature Review Study on Atomic Ions Dissolution of Titanium and Its Alloys in Implant Dentistry,” Materials, vol. 12, no. 3, Art. no. 368, 2019. doi: 10.3390/ma12030368

[53] Z. Khurshid, Z. Sheikh, and M. S. Zafar, Dental Materials (Principles and Applications), 3rd ed. Karachi Paramount Books (Pvt.) Ltd., 2018.

[54] S. T. Kumar, S. P. Devi, C. Krithika, and R. N. Raghavan, “Review of Metallic Biomaterials in Dental Applications,” Journal of Pharmacy and Bioallied Sciences, vol. 12, Suppl. 1, pp. S14–S19, 2020. doi: 10.4103/jpbs. JPBS_88_20.

[55] B. N. Grgur, V. Lazić, D. Stojić, and R. Rudolf, “Electrochemical Testing of Noble Metal Dental Alloys: The Influence of Their Chemical Composition on the Corrosion Resistance,” Corrosion Science, vol. 184, Art. no. 109412, 2021. doi: 10.1016/j.corsci.2021.109412

[56] W. A. Uriciuc et al., “Study on the Surface of Cobalt-Chromium Dental Alloys and Their Behavior in Oral Cavity as Cast Materials,” Materials, vol. 15, no. 9, Art. no. 3052, 2022. doi: 10.3390/ma15093052.

[57] A. Fratila, C. Jimenez-Marcos, C. J. Mirza-Rosca, and A. Saceleanu, “Mechanical Properties and Biocompatibility of Various Cobalt Chromium Dental Alloys,” Materials Chemistry and Physics, vol. 304, Art. no. 127867, 2023. doi: 10.1016/j.matchemphys.2023.127867.

[58] C. Jiménez-Marcos, J. C. Mirza-Rosca, A. Fratila, and A. Saceleanu, “Influence and Comparison of the Properties of Three Cobalt-Chromium Dental Alloys,” Microscopy and Microanalysis, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 156–160, 2023. doi: 10.1093/micmic/ozac030.

[59] L. Slokar, J. Pranjić, and A. Carek, “Metallic Materials for Use in Dentistry,” The Holistic Approach to Environment, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 39–58, 2017.

[60] K. Shemtov-Yona and D. Rittel, “An Overview of the Mechanical Integrity of Dental Implants,” BioMed Research International, vol. 2015, Art. no. 547384, 2015. doi: 10.1155/2015/547384

[61] X. Liu, S. Chen, J. K. H. Tsoi, and J. P. Matinlinna, “Binary titanium alloys as dental implant materials—A review,” Regenerative Biomaterials, vol. 4, no. 5, pp. 315–323, 2017. doi: 10.1093/rb/rbx027.

[62] D. G. K. Hong and J.-H. Oh, “Recent Advances in Dental Implants,” Maxillofacial Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, vol. 39, no. 1, Art. no. 33, 2017. doi: 10.1186/s40902-017-0097-8.

[63] J. C. Souza, K. Apaza-Bedoya, C. A. Benfatti, F. S. Silva, and B. Henriques, “A Comprehensive Review on the Corrosion Pathways of Titanium Dental Implants and Their Biological Adverse Effects,” Metals, vol. 10, no. 9, Art. no. 1272, 2020. doi: 10.3390/met10091272.

[64] M. D. Silva, T. R. Walton, G. O. Alrabeah, D. M. Layton, and H. Petridis, “Comparison of Corrosion Products from Implant and Various Gold-Based Abutment Couplings: The Effect of Gold Plating,” Journal of Oral Implantology, vol. 47, no. 5, pp. 370–379, 2021. doi: 10.1563/aaid-joi-D-20-00190.

[65] L. O. Berbel, B. V. G. de Viveiros, A. L. P. Micelli, F. Nigro, J. L. Rossi, and I. Costa, “Corrosion Mechanism of Ti-6Al-4V Morse Taper Dental Implants Connected to 316 L Stainless Steel Prosthetic Abutment,” Materials Today Communications, vol. 33, Art. no. 104583, 2022. doi: 10.1016/j.mtcomm.2022.104583.

[66] J. Kowalski et al., “Corrosion Resistance of Titanium Dental Implant Abutments: Comparative Analysis and Surface Characterization,” Materials, vol. 16, no. 20, Art. no. 6624, 2023. doi: 10.3390/ma16206624.

[67] M. Soleimani, J. Żmudzki, W. Pakieła, A. Jaśkowska, and K. Krasny, “Dental Implant Abutment Screw Loss: Presentation of 10 Cases,” Journal of Functional Biomaterials, vol. 15, no. 4, Art. no. 96, 2024. doi: 10.3390/jfb15040096.

[68] J. Black and G. W. Hastings, Handbook of Biomaterials Properties, 2nd ed. London Chapman & Hall, 1998.

[69] J. H. Lee, V. Frias, K. W. Lee, and R. F. Wright, “Effect of Implant Size and Shape on Implant Success Rates: A Literature Review,” The Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry, vol. 94, no. 4, pp. 377–381, 2005. doi: 10.1016/j.prosdent.2005.06.002.

[70] S. Seth and P. Kalra, “Effect of Dental Implant Parameters on Stress Distribution at Bone-Implant Interface,” International Journal of Scientific Research, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 121–124, 2013.

[71] L. Gaviria, J. P. Salcido, T. Guda, and J. L. Ong, “Current Trends in Dental Implants,” Journal of Korean Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, vol. 40, no. 2, pp. 50–60, 2014. doi: 10.5125/jkaoms.2014.40.2.50.

[72] Y. Li, C. Yang, H. Zhao, S. Qu, X. Li, and Y. Li, “New Developments of Ti-Based Alloys for Biomedical Applications,” Materials, vol. 7, pp. 1709–1800, 2014. doi: 10.3390/ma7031709.

[73] J. L. Katz, “Anisotropy of Young's Modulus of Bone,” Nature, vol. 283, pp. 106–107, 1980. doi: 10.1038/283106a0.

[74] R. Huiskes, “The Various Stress Patterns of Press-Fit, Ingrown, and Cemented Femoral Stems,” Clinical orthopedics and Related Research, no. 261, pp. 27–38, 1990. doi: 10.1097/00003086-199012000-00004.

[75] D. R. Sumner, T. M. Turner, R. Igloria, R. M. Urban, and J. O. Galante, “Functional Adaptation and Ingrowth of Bone Vary as a Function of Hip Implant Stiffness,” Journal of Biomechanics, vol. 31, pp. 909–917, 1998. doi: 10.1016/S0021-9290(98)00086-3.

[76] Y. Ucar, W. A. Brantley, W. M. Johnston, and T. Dasgupta, “Mechanical Properties, Fracture Surface Characterization, and Microstructural Analysis of Six Noble Dental Casting Alloys,” The Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry, vol. 105, pp. 394–402, 2011. doi: 10.1016/S0022-3913(11)60081-4.

[77] R. Sakaguchi, J. Ferracane, and J. Powers, Craig's Restorative Dental Materials, 14th ed. St. Louis, MO, USA: Elsevier, 2018.

[78] J. F. McCabe and A. W. G. Walls, Applied Dental Materials, 9th ed. UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2008.

[79] J. J. Manappallil, Basic Dental Materials, 4th ed. London, UK: Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers, 2015.

[80] J. R. Davis, Handbook of Materials for Medical Devices, 1st ed. Materials Park, OH, USA: ASM International, 2003.

[81] J. M. Powers and J. C. Wataha, Dental Materials: Foundations and Applications, 11th ed. Missouri, USA: Elsevier/Mosby, 2016.

[82] F. Laurent, B. Grosgogeat, L. Reclaru, F. Dalard, and M. Lissac, “Comparison of Corrosion behavior in Presence of Oral Bacteria,” Biomaterials, vol. 22, no. 16, pp. 2273–2282, 2001. doi: 10.1016/S0142-9612(00)00416-6.

[83] N. Eliaz, “Corrosion of Metallic Biomaterials: A Review,” Materials, vol. 12, no. 3, Art. no. 407, 2019. doi: 10.3390/ma12030407.

[84] L. Ardelean, L. Reclaru, C. M. Bortun, and L. C. Rusu, “Assessment of Dental Alloys by Different Methods,” in Superalloys, 1st ed., M. Aliofkhazraei, Ed., 2015. doi: 10.5772/61115.

[85] B. Dikici, Z. Esen, O. Duygulu, and S. Gungor, “Corrosion of Metallic Biomaterials,” in Advances in Metallic Biomaterials, vol. 4, 2015, pp. 275–303. doi: 10.1007/978-3-662-46836-4_12.

[86] S. Omarov, N. Nauryz, D. Talamona, and A. Perveen, “Surface Modification Techniques for Metallic Biomedical Alloys: A Concise Review,” Metals, vol. 13, no. 1, Art. no. 82, 2023. doi: 10.3390/met13010082.

[87] K. U. Mudali, T. M. Sridhar, and B. Raj, “Corrosion of Bio Implants,” Sadhana, vol. 28, pp. 601–637, 2003. doi: 10.1007/BF02706450.

[88] J. Toledano-Serrabona et al., “Ion Release and Local Effects of Titanium Metal Particles from Dental Implants: An Experimental Study in Rats,” Journal of Periodontology, vol. 94, no. 1, pp. 119–129, 2023. doi: 10.1002/JPER.22-0091.

[89] R. V. Badhe et al., “Systemic Toxicity Eliciting Metal Ion Levels from Metallic Implants and Orthopedic Devices – A Mini Review,” Toxicology Letters, vol. 350, pp. 213–224, 2021. doi: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2021.07.004.

[90] E. Zhang et al., “Antibacterial Metals and Alloys for Potential Biomedical Implants,” Bioactive Materials, vol. 6, no. 8, pp. 2569–2612, 2021. doi: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2020.12.001.

[91] R. P. Brown et al., “Toxicity of Metals Released from Implanted Medical Devices,” in Handbook on the Toxicology of Metals, 3rd ed., 2022, pp. 127–136.

[92] A. Thakur et al., “Recent Advancements in Surface Modification, Characterization and Functionalization for Enhancing the Biocompatibility and Corrosion Resistance of Biomedical Implants,” Coatings, vol. 12, no. 10, Art. no. 1459, 2022. doi: 10.3390/coatings12101459.

[93] D. R. Unune, G. R. Brown, and G. C. Reilly, “Thermal Based Surface Modification Techniques for Enhancing the Corrosion and Wear Resistance of Metallic Implants: A Review,” Vacuum, vol. 203, Art. no. 111298, 2022. doi: 10.1016/j.vacuum.2022.111298.

[94] M. Zwawi, “Recent Advances in Bio-Medical Implants; Mechanical Properties, Surface Modifications and Applications,” Engineering Research Express, vol. 4, no. 3, Art. no. 032003, 2022. doi: 10.1088/2631-8695/ac8a06.

[95] A. L. Overmann et al., “orthopedic Osseointegration: Implantology and Future Directions,” Journal of orthopedic Research, vol. 38, no. 7, pp. 1445–1454, 2020. doi: 10.1002/jor.24576.

[96] G. Zhu, G. Wang, and J. J. Li, “Advances in Implant Surface Modifications to Improve Osteointegration,” Materials Advances, vol. 2, no. 21, pp. 6901–6927, 2021.doi: 10.1039/D1MA00675D.

[97] C. Pandey, D. Rokaya, and B. P. Bhattarai, “Contemporary Concepts in Osseointegration of Dental Implants: A Review,” BioMed Research International, 2022, Art. no. 6170452. doi: 10.1155/2022/6170452.

[98] S. Safaee, M. Nesabi, M. Nesabi, and F. M. Moghtader, “Osseointegration Dynamics: Insights into the Dental Bone-Implant Interface,” The Journal of Applied Tissue Engineering, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 1–9, 2023.

[99] T. A. Alfaraj et al., “Optimizing Osseointegration in Dental Implantology: A Cross-Disciplinary Review of Current and Emerging Strategies,” Cureus, vol. 15, no. 10, Art. no. e47943, 2023. doi: 10.7759/cureus.47943.

[100] T. Albrektsson et al., “Osteoimmune Regulation Underlies Oral Implant Osseointegration and Its Perturbation,” Frontiers in Immunology, vol. 13, Art. no. 1056914, 2023. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1056919

[101] M. Viceconti et al., “Large-Sliding Contact Elements Accurately Predict Levels of Bone-Implant Micromotion Relevant to Osseointegration,” Journal of Biomechanics, vol. 33, no. 12, pp. 1611–1618, 2000. doi: 10.1016/S0021-9290(00)00139-7.

[102] C. Nelson, “Factors Affecting the Success of Dental Implants,” in Implant Dentistry: A Rapidly Evolving Practice, 2011.

[103] S. Parithimarkalaignan and T. V. Padmanabhan, “Osseointegration: An Update,” Journal of Indian Prosthodontic Society, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 2–6, 2013. doi: 10.1007/s13191-013-0252-z.

[104] L. F. Cooper and S. Shirazi, “Osseointegration—The Biological Reality of Successful Dental Implant Therapy: A Narrative Review,” Frontiers in Oral and Maxillofacial Medicine, vol. 4, Art. no. 39, 2022. doi: 10.21037/fomm-21-74.

[105] A. R. Memon et al., “A Review on Computer-Aided Design and Manufacturing of Patient-Specific Maxillofacial Implants,” Expert Review of Medical Devices, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 345–356, 2020. doi: 10.1080/17434440.2020.1745670.

[106] K. Yang et al., “Bio-Functional Design, Application and Trends in Metallic Biomaterials,” International Journal of Molecular Sciences, vol. 19, no. 1, Art. no. 24, 2017. doi: 10.3390/ijms19010024.

[107] K. A. Kravanja and M. Finšgar, “A Review of Techniques for the Application of Bioactive Coatings on Metal-Based Implants to Achieve Controlled Release of Active Ingredients,” Materials & Design, vol. 217, Art. no. 110653, 2022.doi: 10.1016/j.matdes.2022.110653.

[108] S. Huang, H. Wei, and D. Li, “Additive Manufacturing Technologies in the Oral Implant Clinic: A Review of Current Applications and Progress,” Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, vol. 11, Art. no. 1100155, 2023. doi: 10.3389/fbioe.2023.1100155.

[109] J. R. Davis, “Noble Metal Alloys,” in Alloying: Understanding the Basics, 1st ed., ASM International, 2001, pp. 550–569.

[110] S. J. Bonsor and G. J. Pearson, A Clinical Guide to Applied Dental Materials, 1st ed. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier/Churchill Livingstone, 2013.

[111] B. Love, “Chapter 7–Metallic Biomaterials,” in Biomaterials: A Systems Approach to Engineering Concepts, 1st ed., 2017, pp. 159–184.

[112] A. Nouri and C. Wen, “Noble Metal Alloys for Load-Bearing Implant Applications,” in Structural Biomaterials: Properties, Characteristics and Selection, 2021, pp. 127–156.

[113] H. Knosp, R. J. Holliday, and C. W. Corti, “Gold in Dentistry: Alloys, Uses and Performance,” Gold Bulletin, vol. 36, pp. 93–102, 2003. doi: 10.1007/BF03215496.

[114] H. W. Roberts, D. W. Berzins, B. K. Moore, and D. G. Charlton, “Metal-Ceramic Alloys in Dentistry: A Review,” Journal of Prosthodontics, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 188–194, 2009. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-849X.2008.00377.x.

[115] E. P. Ivanova, K. Bazaka, and R. J. Crawford, “Metallic Biomaterials: Types and Advanced Applications,” in New Functional Biomaterials for Medicine and Healthcare, 2014, pp. 121–147. doi: 10.1533/9780857099320.121.

[116] G. A. Aitchison et al., “A Review of the Design Process for Implantable Orthopedic Medical Devices,” The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal, vol. 3, pp. 21–27, 2009. doi: 10.2174/1874120700903010021.

[117] T. M. Morrison et al., “The Role of Computational Modeling and Simulation in the Total Product Life Cycle of Peripheral Vascular Devices,” Journal of Medical Devices, vol. 11, no. 2, Art. no. 024503, 2017. doi: 10.1115/1.4036227.

[118] A. Erdemir et al., “Credible Practice of Modeling and Simulation in Healthcare: Ten Rules from a Multidisciplinary Perspective,” Journal of Translational Medicine, vol. 18, Art. no. 369, 2020. doi: 10.1186/s12967-020-02497-8.

[119] L. A. Dobrzański and L. B. Dobrzański, “Dentistry 4.0 Concept in the Design and Manufacturing of Prosthetic Dental Restorations,” Processes, vol. 8, no. 5, Art. no. 525, 2020. doi: 10.3390/PR8050525.

[120] A. Y. Alqutaibi et al., “Advanced Additive Manufacturing in Implant Dentistry: 3D Printing Technologies, Printable Materials, Current Applications and Future Requirements,” Bioprinting, vol. 42, Art. no. e00356, 2024. doi: 10.1016/j.bprint.2024.e00356

[121] G. Pradies et al., “Current Applications of 3D Printing in Dental Implantology: A Scoping Review Mapping the Evidence,” Clinical Oral Implants Research, vol. 35, no. 8, pp. 1011–1032, 2024. doi: 10.1111/clr.14229.

[122] H. Dong et al., “Surface Modified Techniques and Emerging Functional Coating of Dental Implants,” Coatings, vol. 10, no. 11, Art. no. 1012, 2020. doi: 10.3390/coatings10111012.

[123] A. Kurup, P. Dhatrak, and N. Khasnis, “Surface Modification Techniques of Titanium and Titanium Alloys for Biomedical Dental Applications: A Review,” Materials Today: Proceedings, vol. 39, no. 1, pp. 84–90, 2021. doi: 10.1016/j.matpr.2020.06.176.

[124] Z. Liu, X. Liu, and S. Ramakrishna, “Surface Engineering of Biomaterials in Orthopedic and Dental Implants: Strategies to Improve Osteointegration, Bacteriostatic and Bactericidal Activities,” Biotechnology Journal, vol. 16, no. 7, Art. no. e2000116, 2021. doi: 10.1002/biot.202000116.

[125] K. K. Amirtharaj Mosas et al., “Recent Advancements in Materials and Coatings for Biomedical Implants,” Gels, vol. 8, no. 5, Art. no. 323, 2022. doi: 10.3390/gels8050323.

[126] N. Jambhulkar, S. Jaju, and A. Raut, “Surface Modification Techniques for Different Materials Used in Dental Implants Review,” Materials Today: Proceedings, vol. 60, pt. 3, pp. 2266–2269, 2022. doi: 10.1016/j.matpr.2022.02.160.

[127] C. Sotova et al., “Dental Implants: Modern Materials and Methods of Their Surface Modification,” Materials, vol. 16, no. 23, Art. no. 7383, 2023. doi: 10.3390/ma16237383.

[128] K. S. K. Saad, T. Saba, and A. B. Rashid, “Application of PVD Coatings in Medical Implantology for Enhanced Performance, Biocompatibility, and Quality of Life,” Heliyon, vol. 10, no. 16, Art. no. e35541, 2024. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e35541.

[129] G. Zhu et al., “Bone Physiological Microenvironment and Healing Mechanism: Basis for Future Bone-Tissue Engineering Scaffolds,” Bioactive Materials, vol. 6, no. 11, pp. 4110–4140, 2021. doi: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2021.04.041.

[130] E. Tranquillo and F. Bollino, “Surface Modifications for Implants Lifetime Extension: An Overview of Sol-Gel Coatings,” Coatings, vol. 10, no. 6, Art. no. 589, 2020. doi: 10.3390/coatings1006058

[131] T. V. Basova et al., “The Use of Noble Metal Coatings and Nanoparticles for the Modification of Medical Implant Materials,” Materials & Design, vol. 204, Art. no. 109672, 2021. doi: 10.1016/j.matdes.2021.109672.

[132] C. Li, D. Pisignano, Y. Zhao, and J. Xue, “Advances in Medical Applications of Additive Manufacturing,” Engineering, vol. 6, no. 11, pp. 1222–1231, 2020.doi: 10.1016/j.eng.2020.02.018.

[133] R. Kumar, M. Kumar, and J. S. Chohan, “The Role of Additive Manufacturing for Biomedical Applications: A Critical Review,” Journal of Manufacturing Processes, vol. 64, pp. 828–850, 2021.doi: 10.1016/j.jmapro.2021.02.022.

[134] E. R. Ghomi et al., “Future of Additive Manufacturing in Healthcare,” Current Opinion in Biomedical Engineering, vol. 17, Art. no. 100255, 2021. doi: 10.1016/j.cobme.2020.100255.

[135] A. Awasthi, K. K. Saxena, and R. K. Dwivedi, “An Investigation on Classification and Characterization of Bio Materials and Additive Manufacturing Techniques for Bioimplants,” Materials Today: Proceedings, vol. 44, pt. 1, pp. 2061–2068, 2021. doi: 10.1016/j.matpr.2020.12.104.

[136] J. Schweiger, D. Edelhoff, and J. F. Güth, “3D Printing in Digital Prosthetic Dentistry: An Overview of Recent Developments in Additive Manufacturing,” Journal of Clinical Medicine, vol. 10, no. 9, Art. no. 2010, 2021.doi: 10.3390/jcm10092010.

[137] S. Rouf et al., “Additive Manufacturing Technologies: Industrial and Medical Applications,” Sustainable Operations and Computers, vol. 3, pp. 258–274, 2022. doi: 10.1016/j.susoc.2022.04.001.

[138] Y. Tian et al., “A Review of 3D Printing in Dentistry: Technologies, Affecting Factors, and Applications,” Scanning, 2021, Art. no. 9950131. doi: 10.1155/2021/9950131.

[139] M. Meng et al., “3D Printing Metal Implants in Orthopedic Surgery: Methods, Applications and Future Prospects,” Journal of orthopedic Translation, vol. 42, pp. 94–112, 2023. doi: 10.1016/j.jot.2023.08.002.

[140] J. Gao et al., “Research Progress on the Preparation Process and Material Structure of 3D-Printed Dental Implants and Their Clinical Applications,” Coatings, vol. 14, no. 7, Art. no. 781, 2024. doi: 10.3390/coatings14070781

[141] N. Baltzer and T. Copponnex, Precious Metals for Biomedical Applications, 1st ed. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier/Woodhead Publishing, 2014.

[142] O. Bazaka et al., “Metallic Implants for Biomedical Applications,” in The Chemistry of Inorganic Biomaterials, 2021, pp. 1–98. doi: 10.1039/9781839162351-00001

[143] D. Rokaya et al., “Metallic Biomaterials for Medical and Dental Prosthetic Applications,” in Functional Biomaterials: Drug Delivery and Biomedical Applications, 2022, pp. 503–522. doi: 10.1007/978-981-16-9065-8_19.

[144] A. M. Abraham and S. Venkatesan, “A Review on Application of Biomaterials for Medical and Dental Implants,” Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part L: Journal of Materials: Design and Applications, vol. 237, no. 2, pp. 249–273, 2023. doi: 10.1177/14644207221128505.

[145] J. Nierlich et al., “Corrosion behavior of dental alloys used for retention elements in,” European Journal of Oral Sciences, vol. 124, no. 3, pp. 287–294, 2016. doi: 10.1111/eos.12271.

[146] A. Pandey, A. Awasthi, and K. K. Saxena, “Metallic Implants with Properties and Latest Production Techniques: A Review,” Advances in Materials and Processing Technologies, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 405–440, 2020.doi: 10.1080/2374068X.2019.169053